EVALUATING THE U.S. EDIBLE FLOWER MARKET AND CULTIVATION PRACTICES, AND IMPLEMENTING VIRTUAL REALITY INTO A HORTICULTURE COURSE

Abstract

Edible flowers can be defined as any flower material that is safe for human consumption and has potential health benefits. They have long been consumed, dating back to Ancient Egyptian, Ancient Roman, and Victorian societies. More recently, there has been a surge of public interest as consumers look for new and innovative food products to add to their diets. With this new surge of interest, there is both a need and an opportunity for producers and scientists to meet demand and help the market continue to grow and innovate. Recent research has primarily focused on post-harvest strategies, such as extending the limited shelf life, and analyses of phytochemical profiles. Two research areas with limited information concern the demographics of edible flower markets and the production methods for edible flowers. Characteristics of the global and United States (US) edible flower markets are largely unknown, and market sizes are currently determined solely by third-party market reports. To address these gaps, this dissertation integrates three applied research studies spanning market characterization, production strategies, and horticultural education.Our first study surveyed farmers’ market managers in the US to assess if their markets sold edible flowers and, if so, what characteristics were associated with those sales (e.g., US region, regional land-use classification, market style classification). We found that markets located in urban and western areas were more highly associated with edible flower sales. The most commonly sold flower species were nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus), calendula (Calendula officinalis), marigolds (Tagetes spp.), and pansies (Viola x wittrockiana). When asked about what other products edible flower vendors sold, those who sold vegetables alone (47.7%) and those who sold fruit and vegetables (32.6%) were the most common. Another important piece of information learned was the challenges to market expansion. These challenges include a lack of public knowledge, struggling with marketability, and a need for species-specific growing information. These results are important for researchers and producers alike, as they inform future research directions. A second study was performed to begin addressing the need for species-specific and general production methods for edible flowers. A cultivation study was conducted from June to September 2025 comparing outdoor and greenhouse cultivation of four edible flower species: buzz button (Acmella oleracea), dahlia (Dahlia x hybrida), dianthus (Dianthus chinensis), and zinnia (Zinnia elegans) with concurrent replications. The objectives were to test whether the location treatments affected plant size, flower yield, and the levels of total antioxidant content (TAC) and total polyphenol content (TPC) for each of the species which can have potential health benefits. We observed that, for the final plant vegetative dry weight and total season flower yields, at least one greenhouse location was not statistically different from the outdoor treatments in biomass. Dianthus and zinnia plants in the Greenhouse Two location yielded significantly lower flower biomass, likely due to pest challenges such as thrips. Phytochemical content did not differ significantly between cultivation environments for any species. TPC averages for our species were expressed in GAE mg·g-1 DW: buzz button 6.63 ± 3.51, dahlia 71.21 ± 18.02, dianthus 31.06 ± 8.10, and zinnia 26.35 ± 7.77. The TAC averages for our species were expressed in Trolox equivalents (TE) µmol·g-1 DW: buzz button 34.22 ± 13.58, dahlia 544.54 ± 99.15, dianthus 58.15 ± 12.28, and zinnia 98.87 ± 26.73. The similarity in flower yields and phytochemical levels between cultivation locations demonstrates that greenhouses may be a viable option for local production of edible flowers. These strategies would be beneficial for small to medium-sized producers and help reduce the associated costs of edible flowers’ short shelf life. Our final study looked to use virtual reality (VR) resources to connect online students to a laboratory exercise in a plant propagation course. The growing acceptance of online degrees has expanded program offerings, yet online learners often lack hands-on resources for courses that include laboratory activities. VR applications are tools that can bridge this gap. Prior horticultural research has evaluated VR for understanding greenhouse spaces, but little is known about its use to support greenhouse design-based decision-making. This study evaluated whether non-immersive VR materials enhanced online student engagement and comprehension during a mist-system design assignment in the undergraduate plant propagation course. Students viewed mist system designs using two media types: first, using static images, and second, with annotated 360° VR images. After each media type, students completed quizzes on key concepts and provided feedback on their experience. The media type did not significantly affect comprehension scores, even though 62% of students self-reported that VR images improved their understanding of the material. One insightful comment noted that static images help with detail, but VR images help with perspective, which is important in a design assignment. Students expressed interest in expanded, higher-quality VR integration and access to multiple media formats rather than relying on a single source. These findings suggest that VR can increase perceived accessibility of course content and warrant continued development as educational technologies evolve. Collectively, these studies demonstrate how horticultural research can generate directly applicable insights for producers, educators, and researchers, strengthening the connection between academic studies and real world practice.