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    Breeding waterfowl productivity in a flood-irrigated agricultural landscape
    (Colorado State University. Libraries, 2023) Setash, Casey M., author; Koons, David N., advisor; Pejchar, Liba, committee member; Gammonley, James H., committee member; Sueltenfuss, Jeremy P., committee member
    Similar to agricultural production, the sustainable management of waterfowl populations across the western United States inherently depends on limited water availability. Both endeavors are increasingly challenged by municipal demands for water, drought, and changes in the seasonality of precipitation. Healthy wetlands for wildlife can be sustained in conjunction with the needs of agricultural producers on working lands, but the multifaceted importance of water management is rarely quantified. Information pertaining to the multiple benefits of water management practices might bring to light the larger societal importance of sound water management. This may allow natural resource managers to allocate resources more efficiently and effectively by directing them towards the practices with demonstrated advantages for both wildlife and agricultural producers. The North Platte Basin in north-central Colorado (hereafter North Park) is a model system to evaluate benefits and trade-offs of hydrological manipulations that benefit both agricultural producers and fish and wildlife. Not only are waterfowl and water management already being conducted by federal and state agencies and NGOs like Ducks Unlimited, but North Park is also representative of many working lands throughout the Intermountain West. Agricultural producers in North Park flood irrigate rather than using center-pivot irrigation, which strongly affects on hydrological regimes, water tables, wetlands, and stream flows. Flood irrigation more closely resembles natural stream and river flood regimes and is thought to be more beneficial for wildlife, water table recharge, and evaporative cooling of return flow water. As water resources become diverted for urban municipal uses and the increasing frequency of drought reduces water availability in the semi-arid West, it is believed that the North Platte Basin may begin to play a significant role in the production of waterfowl on a statewide or even a flyway scale. As private land becomes an increasingly important component of waterfowl habitat and water resources become limiting, a strong foundational knowledge regarding how flood-irrigated systems impact wetland-dependent species will therefore be imperative to properly manage waterfowl populations in coordination with agricultural production. We first sought to evaluate the efficacy of flood-irrigated agricultural lands as nesting habitat for breeding waterfowl in the context of land-use intensity. The debate over the best agricultural practices for biological conservation typically focuses on land sharing and land sparing production strategies. One end of the spectrum posits that high-intensity agriculture and the smaller footprint associated with it allows for other land parcels to be spared for biodiversity and therefore provides more suitable habitat, whereas others argue that agricultural lands should be cultivated at a low intensity and interspersed with wildlife habitat, therefore sharing the land with wildlife. We evaluated the demographic consequences of land-sharing and land-sparing practices on breeding bird nest site selection and nest survival, focusing specifically on waterfowl in a flood-irrigated hay agricultural system. We specifically assessed the habitat features related to both shared and spared lands driving nest site selection at two scales and how those same features scaled up to impact nest survival. Nests were located disproportionately closer to uncut irrigated meadows and farther from harvested hay meadows relative to available points, but closer to irrigation ditches. Nests closer to irrigation ditches, uncut irrigated meadows, and open water also experienced higher nest survival. This system is representative of many agricultural systems around the globe and illustrates the ways agricultural practices can shape habitat selection have reproductive consequences for wildlife. After evaluating the importance of wetlands associated with flood irrigation for nesting, we focused our efforts on elucidating their contributions as foraging habitat. Food availability varies considerably over space and time in wetland systems, and consumers must be able to track those changes during energetically-expensive events like breeding. Resource tracking has been studied frequently among herbivores, but rarely receives attention among consumers of macroinvertebrates. We evaluated the change in resource energy density across habitat types and time, and the ability of waterfowl to track macroinvertebrate resources across wetland types and over the course of the breeding season in a high-elevation, flood-irrigated system. We also assessed whether the density of energy resulting from macroinvertebrates explained more of the variation in waterfowl abundance across habitats, or whether the consistency (i.e., temporal evenness) of the resource played a larger role using a pseudo-R2 metric. Energy density varied widely across wetland types, but was highest in basin wetlands (i.e., ponds) and was higher in wetlands with higher temperatures, specific conductivity, and lower dissolved oxygen. Both breeding pair abundance and duckling abundance were positively associated with energy density and resource consistency (R2 = 0.06 for pair abundance and 0.31 for duckling abundance), but energy density explained more of the variation in both waterfowl responses (R2 = 0.77 for pair abundance and 0.58 for duckling abundance). These results have the potential to not only elucidate mechanisms of habitat selection among waterfowl, but also indicate where and when water resources should be allocated as climate conditions become increasingly arid. The technological tools we used initially to evaluate waterfowl use of flood-irrigated habitats (i.e., Global Positioning System [GPS] tags) have become a common tool in ecological studies of animal behavior and demography despite previous research indicating negative impacts on vital rates across a variety of taxa. We therefore focused next on evaluating the impacts of GPS tags on our focal waterfowl species and others across the life-history spectrum. Researchers face tradeoffs when deciding whether they are an appropriate tool because GPS tags may impact vital rates, but they provide detailed data on movements and behavior that often cannot be obtained in other ways. Using band recovery data from hunter harvests, we evaluated the strength of effects induced by GPS tags on annual mortality of adult females across 13 waterfowl species, and whether species with a slower life-history strategy might be more resilient to GPS tag effects than their fast-lived counterparts. Hazard ratios, indicating the risk of death for individuals wearing GPS tags compared to those wearing only metal bands, ranged from 0.92 - 4.38 and the mean difference in survival between marker types across species was 0.31, but these results are averaged across the study period. The magnitude of tag effects remained constant across life-history tempo, indicating that slower-lived species were not able to buffer the effect of wearing GPS tags. When scaling effect sizes up to a currency of fitness, slower-lived species exhibited a similar handicap of wearing GPS tags compared to species with a faster life-history strategy, and the effects were notable. Our results highlight that even small impacts to important vital rates can affect inference pertaining to survival and mortality as well as fitness from birds affixed with GPS tags. The results of this study revealed considerable survival effects across species, although time trends illustrated decreasing effect sizes for most species over time. Results emphasize the importance of testing for such effects in future research as technology advances. Finally, we used components of each previous chapter to characterize the population of breeding ducks in this system and the demographic consequences of environmental conditions. Waterfowl populations in the Intermountain West rely upon water availability and are not as frequently studied as populations within North American core breeding areas like the Prairie Pothole Region. Different species experience different environmental conditions during peak nest initiation depending on their breeding phenology, especially in variable environments like those associated with high-elevation systems. We fit species-specific integrated population models to evaluate the demographic drivers of mallard and gadwall populations breeding in a high-elevation intermountain basin in Colorado representative of many Intermountain West habitats from 2018-2022. Each species initiated nests at opposite ends of the phenological spectrum, allowing us to assess the effects of environmental conditions on demography. Both mallard and gadwall annual after-hatch-year (AHY) female survival probabilities were comparable to estimates from other regions (hatch-year [HY] mallards = 0.48 [SD = 0.09] to 0.53 [SD = 0.07], AHY mallards = 0.53 [SD = 0.07] to 0.57 [SD = 0.05], HY gadwall = 0.44 [SD = 0.13] to 0.52 [SD = 0.14], AHY gadwall = 0.56 [SD = 0.11] to 0. 66 [SD = 0.12]). Annual recruitment, a metric of the number of females produced per breeding pair, was similar among gadwall (0.62 [SD = 0.80] to 1.04 [SD = 1.04]) and mallards (0.40 [SD = 0.48] to 1.59 [SD = 0.95]), but realized population growth rate (λ) did not vary as much for gadwall (0.93 [SD = 0.56] to 1.21 [SD = 0.59]) as it did for mallards (0.76 [SD = 0.24] to 1.55 [SD = 0.24]). Recruitment of both species exhibited quadratic relationships with spring growing degree days, indicating recruitment was higher during springs with intermediate temperatures, and spring snow-water equivalent metrics in the surrounding mountains positively impacted HY and AHY mallard survival in addition to HY gadwall survival. The results of this study emphasize the need for continued monitoring of waterfowl outside of traditional survey areas and provide insight into water management strategies to target important vital rates as climate and land use change.