Browsing by Author "Popat, Ketul C., advisor"
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Item Open Access 316L stainlesss steel modified via plasma electrolytic oxidation for orthopedic implants(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2022) Michael, James A., II, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Li, Vivan, committee member; Sampath, Walajabad S., committee member316L stainless steel (SS) is widely used biomaterial for implantable devices and is estimated to the base material for 60% of implantable devices. However, one challenge of the material is the inhomogeneity of the surface morphology which may influence the adhesion process of host cells and bacteria. One method to create a uniform surface of 316L SS is plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO). PEO creates an oxide layer on the outer surface thus changing the surface topography on the microscale. PEO process on SS functions by anodizing the surface via direct current in electrolyte solution. Preliminary research found that a continuous direct current over a time manufactured undesirable samples, to overcome this challenge the use of pulse timings was utilized during fabrication. This research aimed to answer the questions how do PEO modifications effect cellular adhesion and viability, and how do PEO modifications affect bacteria adhesion and viability. PEO modified 316L SS surfaces were characterized and its effects on the adhesion, morphology, and differentiation of adipocyte derived stem cells, along with the adhesion and morphology of Staphylococcus aureus was investigated.Item Open Access A drug eluting, osseointegrative phospholipid coating for orthopedic implants(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2011) Prawel, David A., author; James, Susan P., advisor; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Kipper, Matt J., committee member; Ryan, Stewart D., committee memberMillions of implant surgeries are performed each year. Titanium is commonly used for implantable metallic devices, especially total hip and knee replacements. However, titanium implants are far from perfect. Although the absolute failure rate is not particularly high, the case-by-case direct and human cost of each device implant failure is tremendous. Cementless titanium implant devices, although preferred by surgeons, frequently fail due to loosening of the device, often as a result of poor integration of naturally forming bone with the metallic implant, and by infection. Phospholipids are naturally occurring substances that are shown to enhance integration of new bone with implants, and to help reduce inflammation, a common precursor to infection. In addition, numerous studies have shown phospholipids to be effective drug delivery agents. To date, dip and drip coating techniques for applying phospholipid coatings have been used on titanium. Both coating techniques are easy to perform, but result in coatings too thick and non-conformal for in vivo use. Electro-spraying (E-spray) is a method of atomizing a liquid by means of electrical forces. E-spraying provides the advantage of being able to create coatings with relatively high efficiencies because the electrical charge difference "carries" the liquid source material, which also provides good control of coating morphology, especially on rough and intricately shaped surfaces. Other advantages of this technique are low cost and easy setup. In our work, the E-spraying technique was successfully adapted to apply thin, conformal, consistent coatings of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine (DOPS) to small, flat, commercially pure titanium plates. DOPS coatings were E-sprayed, then loaded with gentamicin sulfate (GS), a popular antibiotic used in treatment of osteomyelitis. An elution study was completed to assess drug delivery capabilities of the coatings. This work demonstrated that elution profile could be modified by changing E-spray parameters. Rat marrow stromal cells were harvested, and seeded onto the test coatings. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were selected from the general cell population, successfully cultured and differentiated into osteoblasts. Cytotoxicity of the coatings, along with cell viability, cell differentiation, biomineralization activity, cell morphology and early osseogenesis markers were evaluated at multiple time points in dual multi-week studies. DOPS coatings were found to be non-cytotoxic, and cell viability and biomineralization were higher on DOPS-coated surfaces and gentamicin-loaded coatings than on plain titanium samples. At the two week time point, excessive delamination of the coatings occurred in the cell growth environment. Research was undertaken to identify and test techniques to enhance coating retention. Surface chemistry was modified by passivation and pretreatment with calcium-chloride, and cholesterol was added to the DOPS E-spray. A repeated elution study demonstrated that elution profile could be modified as a result of changes in coating chemistry. An additional MSC cell study was completed to reconfirm the effects of enhanced coating chemistry on the cytotoxicity, cell viability and biomineralization. Cell morphology was re-evaluated at all time points via SEM imaging. Hydroxyapatite formation was confirmed. Preliminary osseogenesis biomarkers were also measured, showing deposition of osteocalcin and osteopontin, important protein precursors to normal bone growth, on enhanced coatings. This work demonstrates the viability of electro-sprayed DOPS coatings on titanium orthopedic implant material, and the enhanced osseogenic characteristics of these coatings. We also demonstrated that DOPS coatings can carry and release an antibiotic over time at clinically relevant dosages, and that this release profile can be engineered by modifications to E-spray process parameters, surface chemistry and E-sprayed material formulation.Item Embargo Advanced nanostructured materials for enhancing bioactivity(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2024) Bhattacharjee, Abhishek, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Sampath, Walajabad, committee member; Herrera-Alonso, Margarita, committee member; Wang, Zhijie, committee memberHealth hazards such as pathogenic infection, communicable diseases, and bone damage and injuries cause enormous human suffering and pain worldwide. Biomaterials such as orthopedic implants and biosensors are crucial tools to remedy these complications. Development of novel biomaterials and modifying existing materials can help enhance medical device efficacy. One of the key aspects of improving biomaterials is the utilization of nanotechnology. Nanoscale surface features can improve the interaction between materials and biological agents, thus improving their bioactivity. In this dissertation research, two different biomaterials were used for two distinct applications. Firstly, titanium, a common material for orthopedic implants, was used. Ti is a popular implant material because of its superior corrosion resistance, lightweight, and excellent biocompatibility. However, 10% of Ti implants fail each year due to pathogenic bacterial infection and poor osseointegration resulting in revision surgeries and immense suffering of the patients. Nanostructured surface modification approaches can potentially reduce the failure rate of Ti implants. In this study, TiO2 nanotube arrays (NT) were fabricated followed by zinc (Zn) and strontium (Sr) doping. These elements provide important signals to mesenchymal stem cells to differentiate into osteoblasts which helps in bone healing. Zn also reduces bacterial adhesion to the implant surface. Results showed that the modified surfaces could significantly reduce bacterial adhesion and improved osseointegration properties of the mesenchymal stem cells. Secondly, a polydiacetylene (PDA)-based electrospun nanofiber biosensor was prepared that is flexible in nature for monitoring bacterial or viral infection. The nanofiber biosensor could selectively detect Gram-negative bacteria via a vivid blue-to-red color transition. Since the color transition is visible to the naked eye, the biosensor offers immense potential to be used as a screening device for Gram-negative bacterial infection in various industries such as food packaging, medical, intelligence, and national security. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the PDA biosensing platform was utilized to detect the spike (S) protein of the SARS-CoV-2. For this, the surface chemistry of the PDA fibers was modified, and a receptor protein was conjugated at the end of the PDA polymer chain. When the modified PDA fibers were incubated with the S protein, the blue-to-red color transition happened, thus sensing the presence of S protein in the environment. This result indicated that PDA nanofiber biosensor is a flexible sensing platform for effectively detecting both bacteria and viruses. The two biomaterials investigated in this research indicated that the use of nanotechnology can help in enhancing their bioactivity.Item Open Access Development of surface modifications on titanium for biomedical applications(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2021) Maia Sabino, Roberta, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Martins, Alessandro F, advisor; Herrera-Alonso, Margarita, committee member; Li, Yan Vivian, committee member; Wang, Zhijie, committee memberFor decades, titanium-based implants have been largely employed for different medical applications due to their excellent mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and remarkable biocompatibility with many body tissues. However, even titanium-based materials can cause adverse effects which ultimately lead to implant failure and a need for revision surgeries. The major causes for implant failure are thrombus formation, bacterial infection, and poor osseointegration. Therefore, it is essential to develop multifunctional surfaces that can prevent clot formation and microbial infections, as well as better integrate into the body tissue. To address these challenges, two different surface modifications on titanium were investigated in this dissertation. The first one was the fabrication of superhemophobic titania nanotube (NT) surfaces. The second approach was the development of tanfloc-based polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs) on NT. The hemocompatibility and the ability of these surfaces to promote cell growth and to prevent bacterial infection were investigated. The results indicate that both surface modifications on titanium enhance blood compatibility, and that tanfloc-based PEMs on NT improve cell proliferation and differentiation, and antibacterial properties, thus being a promising approach for designing biomedical devices.Item Open Access Hemocompatibility of hyaluronan enhanced linear low-density polyethylene for heart valve leaflet applications(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2018) Simon-Walker, Rachael, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Reynolds, Melissa, committee member; Orton, Christopher, committee member; Chicco, Adam, committee memberHeart valve disease is a major concern in both developed countries with advanced ageing populations and undeveloped countries which experience a high incidence of rheumatism leading to valvular disease. To reduce mortality and improve quality of life, heart valve implantations have been widely used to assist in improving function of the native cardiovascular system. While mechanical heart valves and tissue-based heart valves have been successfully used to improve quality of life compared to untreated valvular disease, draw-backs are inherent. Mechanical heart valves are prone to thrombosis and require life-long supplemental anti-coagulation therapy. Tissue-based valves are more hemocompatible, but lack the durability required for long-term implantation. To address these issues, polymeric heart valves have been highly sought after due to polymers' abilities to enhance durability and be manufactured to be similar to the native heart valve leaflet. In addition, their surfaces can be modified to increase hemocompatibility. In this work we explore the hemocompatibility and immune response to a novel polymer for use in heart valve leaflet applications; hyaluronan enhanced linear low-density polyethylene. It is proposed that the combination of linear low-density polyethylene with hyaluronan will create a highly durable material that will reduce thrombosis and inflammation due to the anionic and hydrophilic nature of the glycosaminoglycan.Item Open Access Hemocompatibility of titania nanotube arrays under static and dynamic conditions(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2020) Ghosh, Sayudh, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Wang, Zhijie, committee member; Li, Yan, committee memberTitanium and titanium alloys have been extensively used to make blood contacting medical devices such as vascular stents, mechanical heart valves, etc. However, the material is not always hemocompatible, often resulting in thrombosis and eventual rejection of the medical device. To overcome this, medical practitioners have used anti coagulating methods which have had other detrimental effects on patients. Researchers have tried to overcome this problem by developing different surfaces for materials and evaluating hemocompatibility in static conditions, however it is important to evaluate hemocompatibility under dynamic conditions to get a realistic biological response. Recent studies have shown that nanotextured surfaces show better hemocompatibility than non-nanotextured surfaces. In this study, we have developed a dynamic chamber to evaluate hemocompatibility of titania nanotube arrays. The nanotube arrays were fabricated using anodization technique and modified to make the surface either supherhydrophobic or superhydrophillic. The stability of these surfaces and their interaction with blood and its components (protein adsorption, cell adhesion, platelet adhesion and activation) was investigated under dynamic flow conditions and compared to that from static conditions. The results indicate that the Titania nanotube arrays that were superhydrophobic show significantly enhanced hemocompatibility than other surfaces.Item Open Access Hydrothermal surface modifications on titanium for biomedical applications(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2023) Manivasagam, Vignesh K., author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Cox-York, Kimberly, committee member; Walajabad, Sampath, committee member; Wang, Zhijie, committee memberTitanium and its alloys are widely used in different biomaterial applications due to their remarkable mechanical properties and bio-inertness. However, titanium-based materials still face some challenges, with an emphasis on hemocompatibility. Blood-contacting devices such as stents, heart valves, and circulatory devices are prone to thrombus formation, restenosis, and inflammation due to inappropriate blood–implant surface interactions. After implantation, when blood encounters these implant surfaces, a series of reactions takes place, such as protein adsorption, platelet adhesion and activation, and white blood cell complex formation as a defense mechanism. Currently, patients are prescribed anticoagulant drugs to prevent blood clotting, but these drugs can weaken their immune system and cause profound bleeding during injury. Extensive research has been done to modify the surface properties of titanium to enhance its hemocompatibility. Results have shown that the modification of surface morphology, roughness, and chemistry has been effective in reducing thrombus formation. A simple hydrothermal treatments with different acidic/basic medium were investigated in this dissertation. The first treatment with sodium hydroxide and the second treatment with sulfuric acid. Hemocompatability, cytocompatibility and antibacterial properties of these surfaces were investigated. The results indicated that sodium hydroxide surface is suitable for orthopedic application and sulfuric acid surface with silane coating is highly suitable for blood contacting implant surface.Item Open Access Interaction of adipose-derived stem cells with titania nanotube surfaces(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2018) Cowden, Kari Miller, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Park, Juyeon, committee member; Sampath, Walajabad S., committee memberThe need for joint replacement will continue to grow and increase significantly in the coming decades due to the aging population. Unfortunately, many joint implants experience failure after 10-15 years requiring revision surgery. With the growing need for more implants and the high cost of medical expenses for orthopedic surgery, it is imperative that implants are effective and have long term success. Since joint implant materials come into direct contact with bone it is vital that they mimic the structure of bone to improve osseointegration, or the direct structural and functional connection between living bone and the implant surface. Improving the osseointegration of the implant can increase the stability of the implant, thus, reducing micro motions that cause loosening and lead to implant failure. Current joint implants have microscale coatings and texturing, however, bone is composed of both micro and nano components. In order to mimic the nanostructure of bone, different nanotopograhies are currently being studied. These nanostructures have been shown to improve cellular response in terms of adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation. However, the optimal size of nanosurfaces to promote cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation is still disputed. Titania nanotubes (NT) have been shown to improve cellular response in vitro and improve integration in in vivo animal studies. This thesis investigates the surface characteristics of titania NT and the effect of nanotube size on adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells (ADSC) in vitro. The results presented in this thesis indicate that ADSC differentiated and performed better on NT surfaces than Ti surfaces. Additionally, the size of titania NT altered the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of ADSC. Further studies should be directed toward in vivo animal studies to confirm that implants with NT surfaces enhance osseointegration and further define their potential to improve implant stability.Item Open Access Interaction of erythrocytes (RBC's) with nanostructured surfaces(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2022) Virk, Harvinder Singh, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Ghosh, Soham, committee member; Li, Vivian, committee memberTitanium and its alloys are used to make different blood-contacting medical devices such as stents, artificial heart valves, and catheters for cardiovascular diseases due to their superior biocompatibility. Thrombus formation begins on the surface of these devices as soon as they encounter blood. This leads to the formation of blood clots, which obstructs the flow of blood that leads to severe complications. Recent advancements in nanoscale fabrication and superhydrophobic surface modification techniques have demonstrated that these surfaces have antiadhesive properties and the ability to reduce thrombosis. In this study, the interaction of erythrocytes and whole blood clotting kinetics on superhydrophobic titanium nanostructured surfaces was investigated. These surfaces were characterized for their wettability (contact angle), surface morphology and topography (scanning electron microscopy (SEM)), and crystallinity (glancing angled X-Ray diffraction (GAXRD)). Erythrocyte morphology on different surfaces was characterized using SEM and overall cell viability was demonstrated through fluorescence microscopy. The hemocompatibility of these surfaces was characterized using commercially available assays: thrombin generation assay --> thrombin generation, hemolytic assay --> hemolysis, and complement convertase assay --> complement activity. The results indicate that superhydrophobic titanium nanostructured surfaces had lower erythrocyte adhesion, less morphological changes in adhered cells, lower thrombin generation, lower complement activation, and were less cytotoxic compared to control surfaces. Thus, superhydrophobic titanium nanostructured surfaces may be a promising approach to prevent thrombosis for several blood-contacting medical devices.Item Open Access Polycaprolactone nanowire surfaces as interfaces for cardiovascular applications(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2014) Leszczak, Victoria, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Reynolds, Melissa, committee member; Dasi, Prasad, committee member; Williams, John, committee memberCardiovascular disease is the leading killer of people worldwide. Current treatments include organ transplants, surgery, metabolic products and mechanical/synthetic implants. Of these, mechanical and synthetic implants are the most promising. However, rejection of cardiovascular implants continues to be a problem, eliciting a need for understanding the mechanisms behind tissue-material interaction. Recently, bioartificial implants, consisting of synthetic tissue engineering scaffolds and cells, have shown great promise for cardiovascular repair. An ideal cardiovascular implant surface must be capable of adhering cells and providing appropriate physiological responses while the native tissue integrates with the scaffold. However, the success of these implants is not only dependent on tissue integration but also hemocompatibility (interaction of material with blood components), a property that depends on the surface of the material. A thorough understanding of the interaction of cardiovascular cells and whole blood and its components with the material surface is essential in order to have a successful application which promotes healing as well as native tissue integration and regeneration. The purpose of this research is to study polymeric nanowire surfaces as potential interfaces for cardiovascular applications by investigating cellular response as well as hemocompatibility.Item Open Access Superhydrophobic titania nanoflowers for reducing adhesion of platelets and bacteria(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2020) Montgomerie, Zachary Z., author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Li, Vivian, committee member; Sampath, Walajabad S., committee memberThrombosis formation and bacterial infection are key challenges for blood-contacting medical devices. When blood components encounter a device's surface, proteins are adsorbed, followed by the adhesion and activation of platelets as well as an immune response. This culminates in clot formation via the trapping of red blood cells in a fibrin matrix, which can block the device's function and cause severe complications for the patient. Bacteria may also adhere to a device's surface. This can lead to the formation of a biofilm, a protective layer for bacteria that significantly increases resistance to antibiotics. Despite years of research, no long-term solutions have been discovered to combat these issues. To impede thrombosis, patients often take antiplatelet drugs for the life of their device, which can cause excess bleeding and other complications. Patients can take antibiotics to fight bacterial infection, but these are often ineffective if biofilms are formed. Superhydrophobic surfaces have recently been studied for their antiadhesive properties and show promise in reducing both thrombosis and bacterial infection. In this work, superhydrophobic titania nanoflower surfaces were successfully fabricated on a titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V substrate and examined for both hemocompatibility and bacterial adhesion. The results indicated a reduction of protein adsorption, platelet and leukocyte adhesion and activation, whole blood clotting, bacterial adhesion, and biofilm formation, as well as surface stability compared to control surfaces.Item Open Access Superhydrophobic titania nanotube arrays for reducing adhesion of bacteria and platelets(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2017) Bartlett, Kevin, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Kota, Arun, committee member; Reynolds, Melissa, committee memberHemocompatibility and bacterial infections cause challenges for medical devices. When any material is implanted into the body bacteria, blood, proteins and platelets will adsorb and attach to its surface. The platelet adsorption leads to thrombosis and clot formation on the surfaces, restricting blood flow and in some cases leading to inflammation and device failure. Bacteria adhesion leads to colony formation and eventually infection if left untreated. Infections can be treated with antibiotics, but growing antibiotic resistance among bacteria has spurred a search for methods that reduce infections without increasing resistance. Proposed methods have included diamond-like carbon surfaces, drug-eluting surfaces, and titania nanotube arrays. These methods have all shown some initial improved, but no approach has proven durable over long periods of time. Superhemophobic surfaces are a new approach to improving performance of medical devices, but the interactions of blood components and bacteria with these surfaces have not been well-documented. In this work, superhemophobic surfaces were developed by modifying the surface topography and surface chemistry of titanium. The surface topography was modified by creating titania nanotube arrays through a well-documented anodization and chemical etching technique. Superhemophobicity was induced by modifying the titania nanotube arrays with different silanes using chemical vapor deposition. The investigations of blood interactions with superhemophobic surfaces showed reduced protein adsorption. The bacteria adhesion studies showed reduced attachment for both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The results indicate these surfaces have potential for enhancing material hemocompatibility and reducing the attachment of bacteria.Item Open Access Titania nanotube arrays as potential interfaces for neurological prostheses(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2014) Sorkin, Jonathan Andrew, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; William, John D., committee member; Kipper, Matthew J., committee memberNeural prostheses can make a dramatic improvement for those suffering from visual and auditory, cognitive, and motor control disabilities, allowing them regained functionality by the use of stimulating or recording electrical signaling. However, the longevity of these devices is limited due to the neural tissue response to the implanted device. In response to the implant penetrating the blood brain barrier and causing trauma to the tissue, the body forms a to scar to isolate the implant in order to protect the nearby tissue. The scar tissue is a result of reactive gliosis and produces an insulated sheath, encapsulating the implant. The glial sheath limits the stimulating or recording capabilities of the implant, reducing its effectiveness over the long term. A favorable interaction with this tissue would be the direct adhesion of neurons onto the contacts of the implant, and the prevention of glial encapsulation. With direct neuronal adhesion the effectiveness and longevity of the device would be significantly improved. Titania nanotube arrays, fabricated using electrochemical anodization, provide a conductive architecture capable of altering cellular response. This work focuses on the fabrication of different titania nanotube array architectures to determine how their structures and properties influence the response of neural tissue, modeled using the C17.2 murine neural stem cell subclone, and if glial encapsulation can be reduced while neuronal adhesion is promoted.Item Open Access Titania nanotubes as potential interfaces for vascular applications(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2015) Kelley, Sean Edward, author; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Reynolds, Melissa, committee member; Sampath, Walajabad S., committee memberThe primary fatality of the public worldwide is cardiovascular disease. Surgery is usually the modern answer to these complications including transplanting organs and artificial implants with the latter typically being most successful. Generating long term synergy between the transplants and the surrounding tissue continues to be a problematic causing the necessity for comprehending the complex interactions that occur between the two sides at the cellular level. New implants comprising of either purely cellular platforms or a mixture of synthetic and cellular frameworks have demonstrated tremendous potential for tissue restoration. Preferably, the surface of an implant should be suitable for cells to adhere, proliferate, and in many cases differentiate while performing their required functions as if they were in their own natural environment. The surface of these implants must also have a minimum but ideally no immune response. Titanium and its alloys are extensively employed in biomedical devices, due to their beneficial mechanical and relatively high biocompatible properties. Smooth muscle cells are one of the two major cells varieties that are in contact with vascular stents; consequently the interaction between the cells and the nanotube titania (TiO₂) surface is of the utmost importance. The objective of this research is to examine the cellular response of smooth muscle cells to titania nanotubes as a prospective surface modification to complement titanium vascular stents.Item Open Access Tuning surface wettability for effective oil-water separation, manipulation of ferrofluid droplets and blood contacting medical devices(Colorado State University. Libraries, 2020) Kantam, Prem, author; Kota, Arun K., advisor; Popat, Ketul C., advisor; Li, Yan, committee memberSurface interaction with liquids have gained a lot of attention that enables us to control wetting properties which find applications in self-cleaning, stain free clothing, non-fouling, separation of liquids etc. In this study we tuned surface wettability of different surfaces to showcase potential applications in oil-water separation, manipulation of under liquid droplets and blood contacting medical devices. First, we designed dual superlyophobic surfaces by combining re-entrant texture and appropriate surface energy with recently discovered recyclable polymer. Dual superlyophobic surfaces display both under-water superoleophobicity and underoil superhydrophobicity. Such surfaces are counter-intuitive because typically underwater superoleophobic surfaces require high surface energy and under-oil superhydrophobic surfaces require low surface energy. We fabricated these surfaces using a simple spray coating method that resulted in textured surface with re-entrant structures. The surface energy of the textured surfaces was then modified through plasma treatment. Our surfaces display under-water superoleophobicity for low surface tension liquids liker oils and under-oil superhydrophobicity for high surface tension liquids like water. We envision that our dual superlyophobic surfaces will find applications in membrane separation, antifouling coatings and droplet-based fluidic devices. Second, we developed polyethylene glycol based hydrophilic slippery surfaces by covalently attaching PEG silane via O-Si bonds to hydroxylated surface to form PEG brushes. The hydrophilic slippery surfaces formed are chemically homogeneous with low molecular weight PEG brushes with high grafting density. These surfaces can easily repel high surface tension liquids like water and blood with a tilt angle of 6°. It is envisioned that these surfaces can be effectively used to reduce protein adsorption, platelet adhesion and bacterial adhesion and the use of slippery surfaces can be an ideal approach for designing surfaces for blood-contacting medical devices.